Aesthetically Pleasing Efficient Intelligent Building Skins Engineering Essay

Aesthetically Pleasing Efficient Intelligent Building Skins Engineering Essay Architecture is no longer static and unchangeable instead it is dynamic, responsive and conversant The idea that building skins reflect the skins of living organisms: properly designed, they breathe, change form, and adapt to variations in climate But can highly efficient intelligent skins still be aesthetically pleasing? A building becomes a chameleon which adapts. A properly equipped and responsively clothed building would monitor all internal and external variables, temperature, hygrometry and light levels, solar radiation etc, to determine the best energy equation given these conditions and modify the building and its internal systems accordingly. It is not too much to ask of a building to incorporate, in its fabric and its nervous system, the very basic vestiges of an adaptive capability. (Rogers 1978) The aim of this paper is to explore the notion of incorporating intelligence into a buildings faà §ade. The discussion about the energy efficiency of faà §ades has inspired many architects to no longer view the building envelope as static but as a dynamic being, that can adjust its shape, surface, function and interior spaces in real time in response to intelligent controls that monitor active feedback from the environment. Solar and wind energy, daylight, and water can be captured by buildings and reused efficiently. An Intelligent building is one that combines both active features and passive design strategies to provide maximum user comfort by using minimum energy. The intelligent faà §ade forms part of the intelligent building, it is what protects the inhabited interior whilst controlling exchanges between inside and outside at the envelope level. The plan being to respond effectively to changing climate conditions and inhabitant needs in order to improve functional performance. A buildings faà §ade doesnt just play a key role in the sustainability of a building; adding to both energy efficiency and the quality of the internal climate. It is also a fundamental part of the buildings aesthetic, adding to the structural outline and defining its visual impact on the urban surroundings. A faà §ade can only be described as intelligent when it makes use of natural renewable energy sources such as solar energy, airflows or ground heat to meet a buildings requirements in terms of heating, cooling and lighting. The idea that the fabric of a building can increase its interaction and response to external changes and internal demands with a prime objective of lowering the environmental load is an exciting concept. The facades almost become local, non-polluting energy suppliers to the building. The notion of intelligent building facades is not a new idea; however the implementation of high-tech skins has been slow. While fashionable and almost certainly advantageous, sceptical architects are afraid that operable components are magnets for value engineering or foresee them being stripped off their buildings in the future due to poor performance or poor maintenance. However, the rising cost of energy, latest environmental initiatives and the focus on the green propaganda has put great responsibility on architects and engineers to make continuous energy savings and this must be achieved through effective building design and clever management. Almost seven years after the European Union passed legislation requiring property owners to report on the energy performance of their buildings, a new round of tougher regulations is under way. Plans to revise the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) in 2010 are expected to result in even tighter emissions targets for new buil dings. Gradually more and more architects are beginning to enjoy automating their facades rather than leaving energy-efficient functions to chance. Consequently, the crucial boundary connecting the interior environment and the elements is getting more consideration and consequently more animated. Most buildings today are equipped with increasingly advanced technologies, but few still seem to be utilizing the true potential that this green intelligence has to offer. The intention of this study is to take the idea of the intelligent skin much further and realize what could potentially be possible in the future. The paper will go on to describe the context within which the need for variability in building skin performance has arisen and demonstrate how such dynamic response mechanisms have been incorporated into the design and construction of three buildings; The GSW Headquarters in Berlin, by the architects Sauerbruch and Hutton 1999. The Debis Headquarters building, Berlin by The Renzo Piano Building Workshop in 1997 and the B4 and B6 office buildings in Berlin by Richard Rogers 1998. All three case studies are purpose built office buildings that were built around the same time frame and are in the same European climate, Germany. The climate in Berlin is known as continental. The summers are warmer than the UK and the winters colder. Summer temperatures can rise to 32 degrees centigrade while winter temperatures can drop to -15 degrees centigrade. After German reunification in 1990 Berlin was to become the gateway to the whole former Soviet Communist Empire as it was transformed into an economic epicentre by new investment from the West. A skyline of construction cranes rose over the city, citizens marvelled at the remarkable commitment to entwining a city separated for 50 years. Berlin bravely tried to reconcile its catastrophic past with a new visualization of the urban future. Potsdamer Platz has been the site of the extensive redevelopment, instigating all three of the buildings in the review. Because of this, the buildings should employ reasonably up to date technology and design, which can be effectively compared and critiqued in the study. Not only this, but through a growing trend, buildings that employ environmentally conscious technologies are still the exception in most of Europe today. However Mary Pepchinski explains why for many reasons Germany appears to be the leader Many German architects and engineers sincere ly care about the effect their buildings have on the environment, but others realise that new technologies will be profitable in 10 to 20 years time. Politically, Germanys powerful Green party also influences national environmental policies. (M, Pepchinski 1995:70) The overall purpose of this review is to determine whether functional and aesthetic value can be effectively combined in a single project while still managing to cut energy consumption. However to establish whether the buildings have aesthetic significance one must first determine the criteria for aesthetic judgement. Aesthetics examines our response to an object. Judgments of beauty are sensory, emotional and intellectual all at the same time. Viewer interpretations of beauty possess two concepts of value: aesthetics and taste. Aesthetics is the philosophical notion of beauty. Taste is a result of education and awareness of cultural values; therefore taste can be learned. Taste varies depending on class, cultural background, and education. According to Philosopher Immanuel Kant writing in 1790, beauty is objective and universal; thus certain things are beautiful to everyone. The contemporary view of beauty is not based on innate qualities, but rather on cultural specifics and individual interpretations. (Kant 1790) The criteria for assesing whether the buildings are aesthetically pleasing in this study will be based on two or more views, that of architects or journalists and my own personal opinion. Because judging aesthetics depends on individual interpretations, one is hard pressed to determine the answer, however if based on two views, both can be taken into account, and a conclusion come to. To asses whether the building meets the technological efficiency will be based on performance data or statistics and an engineers view. By also looking at whether or not post occupancy evaluation (POE) methods have been adopted at the as-built stage, involving the views about the buildings from the perspective of the people who use them. It could give vital information on building user perception assessing ease of use, controls, facilities and most importantly perceived visual appreciation. GSW Headquarters Berlin Sauerbruch Hutton Architects 1999 This landmark office tower is an exemplary example of sustainable architecture making use of energy-conserving features. It was the worlds first thermally flued tall building. The most important aspect of the low-energy concept is the highly transparent and dynamic high-rise faà §ade. Colourful orange and pink automated shading panels in the west double skin cavity manage solar heat gain and day lighting. These perforated metal shutters give the building its unique and ever varying appearance. They can be both pivoted and moved aside mechanically or individually by the user; therefore the composition of the entire west faà §ade depends on the habits of the occupants. This creates a distinctive ever-changing pattern causing the structure to come alive. Whilst elegant in simplicity, form and function, the design results from a highly technical discourse in which the engineering and architectural principles rely largely on each other. The design process involved a high level of collaboration between the architects and the engineers-Arup London. The multiple functioning envelope required the main elements of the building to be the result of excellent teamwork. To minimise heat loss both the East and West perimeter walls are designed as double skin facades. The West faà §ade acts as a solar flue, it has three layers; the inner layer consists of a double glazed aluminium curtain wall in which every second bay has an operable window. The vertical posts of this inner faà §ade carry cantilevering brackets to support the outer faà §ade this layer is single glazed and consists of 3.3m x1.8m laminated glass panels. Airflow within the inner and outer skins of the faà §ade can be regulated according to seasonal and weather conditions by da mpers at the top and bottom. Natural ventilation is brought in through the East double skin faà §ade. Fresh air enters the building, passes through the interior spaces, across specially designed corridor openings, and is extracted by the solar flue of the West faà §ade, which offers particularly good thermal insulation. The East faà §ade with its porous ventilation openings is like a smooth skin, where as the West faà §ade deep and separated into layers resembles a fur. (UME 2001:29). The reduced depth of the tower along with generously sized windows allows maximum day lighting, creating optimum conditions on the office floors making most artificial lighting redundant. The brief noted the building had to be a low-cost, socially sensitive structure, which addressed the historic urban context and street planning, but still provide a strong image as the headquarters of GSW. It also had to have functional quality in connecting new and old buildings whilst ensuring operational environmental efficiency. The overall aim for the mechanical design was to improve the buildings sustainability rating by achieving energy savings of 30-40% in comparison to an ordinary building. (www.arup.com) the structure is integrated in a three-dimensional composition, offering a working environment which is beneficial to team-working and customer-focused operations. In 1999 natural ventilation was reportedly used for 75% of the year and the building hardly saw the need to operate its air-conditioners. (NSG space modulation) In the Property EU Magazine M. Korteweg said The building is excellent in its passive control of energy consumption, with CO2 savings estimated to be 55% of equivalent air-conditioned buildings. (Korteweg, M) In my opinion the tall, slender 85 metre tall structure that is curved in shape adds an interesting addition to the urban skyline. The bright coloured red, pink and orange shutters on the West faà §ade are undoubtedly what makes this building stand out from the crowd. It looks like a radiant mosaic, very different from the silvery white East faà §ade. I consider colour to be a fantastic medium to address the senses. Colour is used actively in design as a means of generating atmospheric and distinctive buildings, and I think in this structure it works particularly well. It certainly looks the part but this buildings image is not just skin deep, it also plays the part in reducing emissions and saving energy. The fact that these vivid panels are not just decorative but also functional makes the building so much more fascinating. At night the exterior of the building is lit up, making it easily recognisable, even from a distance. Showing how functional and aesthetic value can be united fantastically in a lone project. In the Architectural Review magazine, James Russell describes the building as An array of energy saving strategies and staff amenities in a colourful, stylish package (Russell, JS 2000:156) Reunification put the site back at the centre of things, and the colourful new sun-shades on the west elevation energise the neighbourhood. (Russell, JS 2000:156) To sum up this sophisticated mix of bold good looks and intelligent features and to evaluate the success and failures, I would say that this building works astonishingly well on both levels. The building lives up to what the brief intended. The Debis Headquarters Berlin The Renzo Piano Building Workshop 1997 The Debis Tower was the first building in the initial stage of the huge Potsdamer Platz development, which was anticipated to give Berlin a new spirit. It is a pioneering energy-conserving design an exceptional example of environmentally progressive architecture celebrating design and technology. It comes across as being subtle and rather understated compared to some of the surrounding urban infrastructure. It has a certain graceful and distinguished modesty. The East facade of the tower is dominated by biscuit coloured terracotta cladding, horizontal and vertical terracotta slats create an accurately proportioned pattern, which expresses every floor and bay within an overall texture resembling a sort of skeletal skin. The building is technologically sophisticated; it has a highly effective curtain wall, which offers considerable advantages in terms of the preservation of energy, day lighting, user control and comfort. The interior skin consists of a visually delicate and subtle glass-breathing wall. It features double-pane operable windows, allow the individual inhabitants of the offices to adjust their own internal climates all year round by taking tempered air from the 700mm wide cavity for natural ventilation. The exterior faà §ade is made up of 12-mm thick, automated, pivoting, laminated glass louvers. The smallest amount of air exchange takes place through these louvers when closed. Allegedly the thermal devices designed for the faà §ade work so well that natural ventilation is used for around 60% of the year an exceptional percentage for a building in a northern climate. In addition, there is a 50% reduction in the energy consumption of the building and 70% reduction in the emission of car bon dioxide. (NSG, Space Modulation). Energy conservation was a significant aspect of the design policy for the building and the project was awarded funding from the European Union Joule II research programme to help finance the design of the facades. To create this environmentally sustainable building many factors had to be considered and contribute towards the design. One being water management. The building makes proficient use of the rainwater it collects, some of the rainwater is used to irrigate the surrounding landscape and vegetation of the building, some is used as water for toilets, and the excess is used to fill the nearby pond when the level drops. The building is accounted to save around 20,000 cubic metres of water a year. (Arch Review 1998) This building is very different from the first case study I looked at. It doesnt make a huge statement, clad in bright, bold colours and doesnt stand out significantly from its neighbours. I think it is delicate and rather subtle in the way it looks. A continuous rhythm of horizontal terracotta louvers interrupted by ever changing individually operable blinds, creating an interesting pattern. In the Architectural Record J.Russell gave his opinion of the building At some times of the day, the sun sparkles from the bevelled bottom edge of the pivoting glass panels; at others, it picks out elements between the glass walls: the vertical glass returns, the metal faà §ade-support structure, or the maintenance platforms. The terra-cotta elements dont move, but their raw-claw finish invites touch. The rhythms of open and closed cladding along with deepening and lightening shadows as the light changes through the day have their own sensuous appeal. (Russell 1998:135) To begin the process of discussing the successes and failures of the building, I am struggling to find a part of the buildings environmental aspects that can be described as a failure. Even tiny details seem to add to the sustainability of the design. The energy-saving approach of the facades combining terracotta and glass screens gives the building a visually rich texture and a highly practical purpose. The building has an innovative environmental approach and careful design detailing, making it an all round success. B4 B6 office buildings Berlin Richard Rogers 1998 Like the previous case study, these two office buildings were part of the much bigger master plan to redevelop the devastated Potsdamer Platz area of Berlin. In this dense urban context the aim was to produce innovative environments for businesses, which must be strikingly contemporary in appearance, and most significantly, utilized a low-energy servicing agenda with a high-quality user comfort. The faà §ades are made up of identical modules of which their basic identical construction can be varied by using different in-fills according to the orientation and performance requirement. This allows different parts of the building to perform in different ways, depending on its specific position. The materials used are clear and opaque glass panels, ceramic tile cladding, and external and internal blinds, a sophisticated mix, which allows the internal environments to be adjusted in response to the requirements of the occupants. The hollow core plan form of the office buildings is cut away gradually from roof level down flooding the atriums with natural light. The atriums are entirely naturally ventilated. In order to optimise the thermal conditions and airflow in the atrium computer simulations were conducted. Solar radiation contributes to the heating and thereby reduces energy consumption in the winter. The natural ventilation ensures that a comfortable climate prevails in the entrance area and the offices adjacent to the atrium throughout the year. A great deal of daylight enters the offices through glazing; this solar radiation is used to heat the fresh air from outside and naturally ventilates the offices. It was estimated that energy consumption in the office buildings would be 50% less than that generated by a conventionally air-conditioned building. When visiting this building what initially stood out to me was how much more high-tech it looked than the previous two case studies I had visited. The energy saving devices seem to stand out more and are what primarily make up the interesting, dynamic faà §ade. The building is made up of two blocks, symmetrical from the front. Similar to the GSW headquarters, brightly coloured solar shading blinds are used. In this case they are bright yellow, and feature at each end of the building almost acting as bookends. In terms of aesthetics, I think the building is visually interesting and fits in well with its surroundings. Kenneth Powell described the completed buildings as Striking expressions of the rise of an eco-architecture on a grand urban scale. (Kenneth Powell) The amalgamation of environmental technology and design in these three case studies seems to have created visually attractive and interesting facades that credit the surrounding city. However it has been argued that Design of such environmental screens has concentrated on technical developments with little appreciation that facades are the public face of architecture. (Moloney, J. 2007:461) this is a strong argument, which I cannot disagree with without taking every case into account. In the past environmentally aware buildings have sometimes been perceived as inept and unattractive. But times have changed. Technology and aesthetics should be able to run alongside each other in harmony. Architects are now beginning to use energy saving strategies to their advantage to create more unique, interesting facades. Solar shading devices can add a huge amount of visual interest to a building, creating an ever changing dynamic pattern, just like the buildings featured in this review. Climate change is undeniable. Therefore the demand for more efficient, next-generation adaptive systems for building facades is increasing. What has the future got in store for adaptive facades? New innovations in faà §ade design are primarily down to advanced technical developments in both computer technology and materials. The building envelope is a critical area of a buildings design, with the facade engineer playing a vital role in bringing the architects vision to life. New cladding materials and processing techniques are continually being developed in the search for better faà §ade performance, making the design and procurement of the building envelope a highly technical and complex process yet one that is still immensely creative. Various architects have presented performance-based prototypes as technological, social, and utopian solutions for the problems we face. Here are two examples: Adaptive faà §ade Fluidic muscle technology Prof Ir Kas Oosterhuis 2003 This was a competition, its aim being to come up with an innovative idea to create a faà §ade that has flexibility that will enable the occupants to have total control of the light levels in their immediate area, rather than have a centralised controller. Currently most solar shading devices have no facility for localised control and the whole faà §ade has to change at once and can usually only be set to fully open or fully closed. This system allows the building users in any part of the building to set their own preferred light levels. The muscles are made of silicon coated polyamide rubber with steel valves at each end, the shades are inflatable cushions made of polyester coated with hypalon and the whole assembly is joined by steel fixings. The structure is very lightweight meaning easy attachment to existing buildings with little disruption. It can therefore be used to enhance the aesthetics of a mundane building. The facade brings attention to the building by the way it moves, it makes the building appear as if its alive, as the skin pulsates and opens. Edge monkeys (theoretical idea) Stephen A. Gage and Will Thorne (British architect-academics) In an article published in the cyber journal Technoetic Arts Stephen A. Gage and Will Thorne describe a hypothetical fleet of small robots they call edge monkeys. Their function would be to patrol building facades, regulating energy usage and indoor conditions. Basic duties include closing unattended windows, checking thermostats, and adjusting blinds. But the machines would also gesture meaningfully to internal occupants when building users are clearly wasting energy. This sci-fi sounding scheme crystallizes the widespread concern informing many recent architectural projects. Today, activating a buildings skin is in fashion. From the robotecture labs at top architecture schools to interactive art installations. Aesthetics and technology are converging in unlikely places. Nonetheless, the mainstream drivers for interactive envelopes are sustainability and strict energy codes. Conclusion- At the conclusion of this review, I have gained an appreciation and better understanding of this new trend towards intelligent faà §ades. Although it is somewhat difficult to conclude this study, primarily because the outcome really depends on individual interpretations and taste. By comparing the views and opinions of more than one person, I feel an honest result has been achieved. Yet due to the lack of commonly accepted methods and relevant supporting data for technology, the assessment of the overall performance of the intelligent facades cannot be carried out. It remains difficult, if not impossible, to carry out a fair comparison between different case studies in terms of intelligence. The different examples show that there isnt only one intelligent faà §ade system but rather that depending on the case in order it is an individual solution according to the location and utilization of the building. As a result it proves difficult to compare the case studies in this report. How ever looking at them individually the environmental data and statistics collected all point to succesfull levels achieved. The facades seem to be doing their job by reacting intelligently to the climate and impoving internal conditions while still cutting energy consumption. The conclusion reached is that with the combination of these three elements: new technology, innovative materials and very good design, highly efficient intelligent skins can still be aesthetically pleasing. But do technically innovative buildings always come in such stylish packages? What twenty years ago was perceived as clumsy and unattractive eco-buildings and deterred architects from a design perspective is today an aesthetically interesting and multi faceted solution. In the design of new buildings, the sustainability aspect is particularly popular and the faà §ade returns to its initial purpose of representation: bold, transparent and sustainable architecture is implemented with minimal conflict as a general rule. Another thought is that intelligent facades are possibly perceived as being visually attractive because of their environmental advantages in a world where being green is in vogue. Or more philosophically, people are attracted to facades with moving parts because motion seems to herald change. Michael Fox an architect and robotics expert predicted Architectural environments will be increasingly smart and responsive and capable of complex behaviours. But one must question whether such promises have been realized? And what is needed to push the idea forward and turn the promise of extraordinarily intelligent faà §ades into a reality? Steps need to be taken to develop these products quickly. We are in the midst of global climate change, the way we think is changing and the way in which buildings are designed and made must also change. Adaptive, intelligent environmental strategies offer a critical contribution to the broad ambition of reversing environmental damage. Intelligent facades will, one day in the near future become a necessity/commonplace and that in time may hinder the obvious aesthetic merit of exemplar buildings like the ones shown in this report.

Comparison of a Position Argument and a Proposal Argument

6. 1 COMPARISON OF A POSITION ARGUMENT AND A PROPOSAL ARGUMENT |DISTINCTION |POSITION ARGUMENT |PROPOSAL ARGUMENT | |Definition of each |Proposal arguments, however, are arguments in which you |Position arguments are arguments in which you state your | | |request a change in policy or procedure of something that is|position on a certain issue and then proceed to argue the | | |already in place, like a new law or rule for example. stance you're taking on the issue with some well-documented | | | |evidence, research, and facts. |Key features of each |HAVE YOU: |HAVE YOU: | | |Chose a controversial issue |Clearly stated the problem | | |Clearly stated a position |Clearly proposed a solution | | |Recognized other positions and possible objections |Explained why the solution will work | | |Developed a well-reasoned argument |Demonstrated how the solution will work | | |Provided convincing support evidence |Addressed possible objections | | |Projected a reasonable persona |Shown why the solution is better than alternatives | | | |Projected a reasonable persona | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |How does each begin? |With an explanation of their issue and clearly stated |Because a proposal argument seeks to change the readers mind| | |position. or behavior, you must first demonstrate that there is such a| | | |problem. The writer should make the problem more convincing | | | |supporting the claim by showing solid evidence. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |How does each conclude? |Provide convincing supporting evidence in figures pacts and |Even though you may believe you have the best solution for | | |specific details. The more valid facts and supporting the |the problem, you cannot expect readers to follow | | |position the more reason there is for the reader to accept |automatically to share your opinion. The writer must explain| | |that the position is valid. |why you r solution is better than the alternatives. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

Racial Profiling within America’s Criminal Justice System Essay

The criminal justice system of America is deeply scarred with racial bias. Crimes are being committed and, in turn, are resulting with innocent people doing hard-time. Thankfully, newfound methods of appealing court rulings are finding justice for these minorities; however, the results are as shocking as the crimes being committed. When it was found that the majority of successful appeals were of minorities, the true defects of the system was apparent. The minority community is being critically judged for things they’re not doing. Throughout the last decade lawmakers have be aiding the racial profiling scene. Arizona legislature passed a law allowing for an officer to demand papers of any person that proved their legal citizenship. The law, intending to lower the illegal immigrants in Arizona, became a symbol for racial profiling within our government. President Obama strongly opposed the passing of the law saying that it threatened â€Å"to undermine basic notions of fairness that we cherish as Americans, as well as the trust between police and our communities that is so crucial to keeping us safe† (Archibold). It is a very rare occasion where the President speaks out about state legislature, proving the enormity of the law and its regards to human rights in America. The law, dubbed the â€Å"Show Me Your Papers† law, has Arizona residents furious. Faulting someone of being illegal, purely based on their appearance is a very subjective issue. Someone with a last name of Garcia or Rodriquez is much more likely to be suspected of being in the country illegally rather than someone with the last name of Smith. Because Smith has a very typically â€Å"American† last name, he, most likely, wouldn’t be asked to prove citizenship. This is a perfect example of the kind of profiling that Arizonians are concerned about. Not only have lawmakers been creating laws supporting racial profiling, but laws such as the â€Å"Stand your Ground† law in Florida are allowing for racial profiling to occur under a pseudonym. The â€Å"Stand your Ground† law allows for someone to use deadly force, if needed, in order to protect themselves from harm’s way. The recent slayings of teenagers Trayvon Martin and Jordan Davis, two African American teenagers, have so far been defended under the law, bringing uproar to the state–especially among the black community. Even worse, it’s considered legal. Families and friends of these children defend them as being upstanding citizens killed due to their race. Although Martin and Davis have not been the only people murdered under the law, they are the ones bring publicity to it. Due to the media attention, the policy’s effect on different racial groups is finally being questioned. John Roman, a senior fellow at the Urban Institute’s Justice Policy Center, conducted a study intending to measure the racial bias within the policy. Roman focused his study on killings that were considered justified within the eyes of the court: the murder of people that just committed a felony. â€Å"Roman found that the killings of black people by whites were more likely to be considered justified than the killings of white people by blacks†¦. In non-Stand Your Ground states, whites are 250 percent more likely to be found justified in killing a black person than a white person who kills another white person; in Stand Your Ground states, that number jumps to 354 percent.† (Childress). Roman’s findings show that even laws that weren’t aimed to become a racial issue are. The issue, however, is that it’s not being stopped despite the blatantly obvious ramifications. Some might argue that people of color are being convicted for more crimes than other races because they’re the ones committing more crimes. A valid point, however, with the recent advancement of these races throughout society, it would be thought that these numbers would be heading in opposite directions. In reality, minorities are being served harsher consequences than their white counterparts despite their equal standing in society. Michigan State University (MSU) conducted a study revealing that there was often racial bias when selecting a jury—especially those involving minority parties. The study conducted by MSU examined jury selection as well as the decisions made by said juries. â€Å"The MSU study of capital charging and sentencing found that those who kill whites are more likely to get the death penalty than those who kill blacks. The MSU study found that a defendant is 2.6 times more likely to get the death penalty if the victim is white.† (ACLU). Following the study, North Carolina passed a law entitled the â€Å"Racial Justice Act†. This piece of legislature made it possible for inmates to appeal their sentences due to supposed racial profiling. Since the passing of the law last year, there have been 4 successful appeals. The law doesn’t guarantee that the whole sentence will be reversed; however, it puts in place a system that allows for flaws in the length/severity of the sentence to be readdressed. The passing of the law as well as the MSU study prove that although there are more minorities being charged for crimes, the charges are of ill-willed intentions. In addition to undeserved charges, DNA testing has exonerated hundreds of people for crimes in which they were convicted over the past few years. When DNA testing became readily available to the criminal justice system, crucial flaws began to surface. It was realized that people were serving hard-time for felony crimes they didn’t commit. University of Virginia Law professor, Brandon Garrett, studied the first 200 people exonerated through said DNA testing. He compared the demographics of the exonerees concluding that â€Å"[Of] the innocent group, all male save one†¦71 percent were minorities. The vast majority of exonerated rape convicts (73 percent) were black or Hispanic, while studies show only about 37 percent of rape convicts are minorities.† (Wood). These hundreds of people are provide valid evidence supporting that, although people of color are being convicted of more crimes, they are also being cleared of said crimes. Racial ethnicity plays a large factor when it comes to being convicted of a crime. Oftentimes, a person of color is automatically assumed to be more likely of committing a crime than a Caucasian person. People of minority races are being targeted as criminals purely based on their looks rather than their guilt. Laws have been passed both for and against said issue, providing for a government that is facilitating racism. Racial profiling isn’t an act that would be thought of as happening in the 21st century, following the Civil Rights movement of the mid 1900’s. Despite the advancements in society, America’s criminal justice system hasn’t quite advanced so far. Works Cited Archibold, Randal. â€Å"Arizona Enacts Stringent Law on Immigration† NYtimes.com April 23, 2012. Web. New York Times January 30, 2013. Childress, Sarah. â€Å"Is There Racial Bias in ‘Stand your Ground’ Law?† PBS.org, July 31, 2012. Web. UNC-TV January 30, 2013 ACLU. â€Å"North Carolina Racial Justice Act† ACLU.org, December 17, 2012. Web. American Civil Liberties Union January 30, 2013 Wood, Mary. â€Å"Study of First 200 DNA Exonerations Shows Flawed Criminal System† law.virginia.edu, July 23, 2007. Web. University of Virginia February 2, 2013

Groundwater use in kathmandu valley - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 19 Words: 5600 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category History Essay Type Argumentative essay Tags: Population Essay Did you like this example? Chapter IV A. Groundwater Use inKathmandu Valley Abstract: The Kathmandu Valley, bowl shaped of 651 Km2 basin areas, has gently sloping valley floor, valley plain terraces with scrap faces together with the flood plains. The valley has warm temperate-semitropical climate and intended circular shaped drainage basin with only one outlet. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Groundwater use in kathmandu valley" essay for you Create order The valley is filled with the fluvio-lacustrine sediments of quaternary age, making three groundwater zones. Only one water supply operator, Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL), is serving water supply in 5 Municipalities and 48 VDCs out of 99 VDCs using 35 surface sources, 57 deep tube wells, 20 WTPs, 43 service reservoirs and operating about 1300 major valves. The portion of groundwater contribution in total production is an average of 35% in dry season and 11% in wet season with yearly average of 19% in 2011, and found decreasing to 7%, 4%, and 3% in 2016, 2019 and 2025 respectively. Water supply is found to be improved with increasing consumption rate from 41 lpcd in 2011 to 126 lpcd in 2025.If supply system is managed with project demand of 135 lpcd, the average supply duration will increase from 7 hr a day in 2011 to 23 hour a day in 2025. Foremost reasons of supplying much less compare to calculated are possibly due to inaccurate forecasting of served populations, abse nce of effective MIS on water infrastructure systems, and inaccurate estimation of unaccounted for water from system. Outside valley urban centers development, optimum land use planning for potential recharge, introducing micro to macro level rainwater harvesting programs and riverhead forest protection are important alternative options to minimize the gap between demand and supply of the valley. 1. BACKGROUND The Kathmandu Valley is consisting of Kathmandu metropolitan city, capital of Nepal. Kathmandu, an ancient city with a varied history, consists of Kathmandu, Bhaktapur and Lalitpur districts with five municipalities and 99 Village Development Committees. The significance of its historical development is the rise of conurbation in the valley, the design of Pagoda style architecture and high rising temples with stepped plinth basement. After liberation in 1952, the new phase of development began with remarkable change in social status, migration of people to the valley. The general trends of the urbanization remained slow till the mid sixties. Only in seventies, infrastructures like road networks, water supply systems started to develop rapidly in the city. As a result, the valley is growing rapidly and haphazardly. This is the right time to look seriously at the growing urban problems and available water resource in the valley. It is necessary to systematize the settlement, implement the town planning more scientifically and carry out the land use in proper manner so that available water resource potential could be maintained sustainably. There are various development plans for the valley, namely construction of outer ring road, fast track road, railways, urban settlement development and construction of link roads on the bank of the rivers. The shortages of surface and groundwater availability and flood damage are identified problems in the valley. The valley basin is an ecologically important basin. 2. INTRODUCTION:KATHMANDUVALLEY 2.1 Topography The Kathmandu Valley is an intramontane basin, situated in the Lesser Himalayan zone. The lofty Higher Himalayan Range is just about 65 km aerial distance north of the Kathmandu. The valley is unique in its shape and is surrounded by the spurs of Lesser Himalayas. The valley basin is 30 km long in the east-west and about 25 km long in north-south direction. Phulchoki Hill which is 2762m above the mean sea level (msl) in the southeast is the highest elevation point in the area. Shivpuri Hill is about 2700m above msl in the north, Nagarkot is 2166m above msl in the east and Chandragiri is about 2561m above the msl in the west. The lowest elevation point located by the side of Bagmati River is 1214 m above msl. About 55 % of the area is occupied by the valley floor, 35% of foothill and the remaining 10% are mountainous areas. In the valley, the forest (mountainous) area is about 30% of the total area having slope range from 20 to 30%, and remaining area (70%) is having average slope of 0 to 4% as shown in Fig.1. Kathmandu Valley is believed to be a Paleolake. At places outcrops of Tistung Formation are exposed in the valley. There are few other buried hills and river channel in the valley underlying the thick cover of the valley fill sediments. Kathmandu Valley is situated between latitudes 27 °32 N and 27 °49N and between longitudes 85 ° 11 E and 85 ° 32 E. The configuration of the valley is more or less circular with watershed area of 651 km2.   The topographic features of the study area are gently sloping valley floor, valley plain terraces with scrap faces, and talus cone deposition, together with the flood plains. 2.2 Meteorology The climate of the area is warming temperate-semitropical, largely affected by monsoon behavior. The maximum temperature is observed about 36 ° C in summer (May) and the minimum temperature is about -3 °C in winter (January). The major forms of precipitation are rain, occasional hail and fog.   Considering the precipitation received record the maximum annual precipitation within the valley was recorded as 3293 mm in 1975 and minimum was 917 mm in 1982. The summer rainfall occurs mainly in the months of June to September and winter rainfall is also common but not heavy. Kathmandu Valley receives an annual average rainfall of about 1600 mm, which is also the average annual rainfall for the whole Nepal. The mean relative humidity is 75% and the mean wind velocity rises till the month of May up to average of 0.55 m/s and decreases after monsoon until December. The predominant wind directions are west and northwest. Generally the days are rather calm before noon and the wind rises afternoon. The monthly air pressure is almost constant throughout the year, which is about 860 mb. The sunshine duration is in the range between 7 hours and 9.5 hours per day except during the months of monsoon.   The average annual evapotranspiration is 829 mm over the basin. 2.3 Drainage The valley is situated at the upstream reach of the Bagmati River. The Bagmati River is the main drainage, which drains all the water collected in the valley basin to the south and dissects the mountains of Mahabharat range at the southwest of the valley. It originates from Bagdwar in the Shivpuri Hill in the north and flows from northeast to southwest direction in the northern half part of the valley. The watershed area has an intend shape of circular with the outlet of the basin at Chovar gorge, which is the only outlet of the basin. The fluvio-lacustrine deposit filled in the valley bottom controls the drainage system. The major tributaries for Bagmati river are nine in total namely Mai khola, Nakhu khola, Balkhu khola, Vishnumati khola, Dhobi khola, Manohara khola, Kodku khola, Godavari khola and Hanumante khola. Hanumante khola flows towards the west and Balkhu khola towards the east. Mai khola and Dhobi khola flow towards the south. They meet Bagmati River in the central part o f the valley. The Vishnumati, the Bagmati and the Manohara khola, which rise from northern and northeastern of the watershed, join in a place called Teku Dovan in Kathmandu City. Godavari khola, the Kodku khola and the Nakhu khola rise in the southern part of watershed and flow from the south to north to join with the Bagmati River. 2.4 Hydrogeology Hydrogeological condition of the valley is important things to know the groundwater potential and its yield estimation. The valley is located in the Lesser Himalayan region in central Nepal. Bedrocks are exposed mainly in the hill slopes around and only at few places in the valley.   The valley is filled with the fluvio-lacustrine sediments of quaternary age. These sediments were derived from the surrounding hills. The thickness of the valley fill sediments varies according to the undulated pattern of the basement from 78 m in Bansbari upto 549 m in Bhrikuti Mandap as confirmed by deep bore holes (Kaphle and Joshi, 1998). Metasedimentary as well as metamorphic rocks represent the basement/bedrock of the valley. Shrestha(2001) assigned The Hydrological Soil Group (HSG) for each type of geological formation according to its infiltration potential as per SCS (1975). HSG A was assigned for the soil of high infiltration rate, B for medium, C for slow and D for very slow rate. The H SG of the valley is shown in Fig.2. There are two types of sediment material namely unconsolidated and slightly consolidated sediment materials. The unconsolidated materials are found mostly in the northern part of the valley and bank of major rivers whereas slightly consolidated materials are found in other portions. In the valley, silty clay lake deposit ranges in thickness from 180 to 220 meters or more from surface and are predominate in the center and south of the valley. On the other hand no thick silty clay lake deposit exists in the northern valley except deep portion of Dhobi khola well field. Un-confined to semi-confined sand and gravel formation predominate in the north and northeast of valley. These formation ranges in thickness from 30 to 80 m with high permeability. On the other hand, the confined water bearing formation is underlined the above mentioned very thick silty clay in the center and south valley. However this deep aquifer has low permeability and high electrical conductance. The ground water we lls in the north side have penetrated high permeable water bearing formation.   However, the static water level in well field as observed by Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) has been showing a decline trend since the groundwater development has started. Almost all the private wells are located in the center and south of the valley, drilled into the confined low permeable aquifer underlined the very thick silty clay formation. In the center of the valley, below Quaternary sedimentary formation, pre-Palaeozoic hard fresh rocks are confirmed by gas wells at 450 m below ground surface. 3. GROUNDWATER ZONE AND RECHARGE Recharge into groundwater is a complicated phenomenon especially when considering recharge in a deep aquifer. It depends on many factors such as soil, vegetation, geography, and the hydrological conditions. In general, most of rechargeable areas are confined in high flat plains and alluvial low plains in the valley, because the exploitation of groundwater seems to be difficult in the surrounding high mountains. The mountain ranges surrounding the valley have no possibility for groundwater recharge because of the high relief topographical conditions. Due to steep slope, the rainfall will convert quickly to runoff than infiltrate through the ground and joins the nearest tributaries. Most of the permeated rainfall moves laterally and reappears in to the river channel as base flow or lost as evapotranspiration. The remaining part moves vertically and recharges the groundwater basin. So the rechargeable areas are found on the margins of northern and southern part of the groundwater basin boundary. Groundwater basin boundary has area of 327 km2 (Shrestha, 1990). The total rechargeable area in the valley was found 86 km2 which is 26% of the groundwater basin area. The amount of long term average annual groundwater recharge to the Kathmandu Valley basin was estimated as presented in Table 1. Table 1. Recharge Amount in equivalent depth over the Kathmandu Groundwater Basin (Shrestha, 1990) Recharge amount in equivalent depth   over the basin per year Recharge   Calculation Methods 51 mm Water Balance Method 55 mm Base flow separation Method 37.5 mm Specific Yield Method 59 mm Chloride Balance Method 41 mm Groundwater Flow Method In 1972, the incoming tritium content at Kathmandu valley was estimated by the Atomic Energy Research Establishment (AERE), Harwell, 60 TU (Tritium unit) during summer and 30 TU in winter. The Tritium dating result for the groundwater indicated the recharge water was of pre-1954 (Binnie Partners and Associates, 1973). Based on hydrogeological structure the valley can be divided into three groundwater zone, namely Northern, central and southern zone. The northern zone includes 5 well fields ( Bansbari, Dhobikhola, Manohara, Bhaktapur and Gokarna well field)   as principal water sources and of 157 km2 area with estimated recharge area of 59 km2 ( Shrestha, 1990). The northern zone is largest recharge area of the valley. There are unconsolidated high permeable materials deposits in upper part consisting of micaceous quartz, sand and gravel. It can yield large quantity of water. Isotope analysis study made by Jenkins et al, 1987, confirmed that there is more rapid and vigorous recharge in Sundarijal area (Gokarna well field) than elsewhere. This zone is an interbedded aquifer or a series of sub aquifers and the complexity of its structure. It has average transmissivity in range of 83 to 1963 m3/d/m and low electrical conductivity in the range of 100 to 200 ms/cm. The central zone includes most of core urban area with almost all private wells. This zone includes Mhadevkhola well field. The upper part of deposit is composed of impermeable very thick stiff black clay with lignite. Total groundwater basin under central zone is 114.5 km2 and the rechargeable area under this zone is 6 km2. It has average transmissivity in the range of 32-960 m3/d/m and very electrical conductivity of an average of 1000 ms/cm. The existence of soluble methane gas gives an indication of sustended aquifer conditions. The southern zone is characterized by about 200m thick clay formation and low permeable basal gravel. This zone is not well developed and only recognized along the Bagmati River between Chovar and Pharping. Total groundwater basin under this zone is 55.5 km2 and the rechargeable area is 21 km2. This zone includes Pharping Well field. 4. WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT STATUS IN KATHMANDU VALLEY 4.1 Institutional Set up and Service Area The water supply services of Kathmandu Valley have remained poor despite various attempts through many projects during last three decades. It was realized that the poor state of water services in Kathmandu valley was a compounded result of deficiencies in water resources, weaknesses in system capacity, inadequacies in management efficiency and increasing political interferences after 1990 political change. As per agreement made with ADB for Melamchi Water Supply Project (MWSP), the Government of Nepal restructured the existing only one State owned regulator   and operator , Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC) and establishing three separate entities, each for the role of asset ownership and policy setting (Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Management Board (KVWSMB), operation and management of services (Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) and economic regulation of the services (Water Supply Tariff Fixation Commission (WSTFC).  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   KVWSMB issued an operating license to KUKL for 30 years on 12 February 2008 and also signed asset lease agreement for 30 years. Under the Asset Lease Agreement, KUKL has exclusive use of leased assets for the purpose of providing water services over 30 years and is responsible for maintaining the leased assets in good working condition, preparing capital investment and asset management programs to meet the service standards specified in the license and implementing such investment plan as approved by KVWSMB. As provider of the license, KVWSMB is also responsible for monitoring whether KUKL complies with the provisions of the operating license and asset lease agreement. The service area of KUKL includes 5 Municipalities and 48 VDCs as shown in Fig. 3.   Water supply management for remaining 51 VDCs are under Department of Water Supply and Sewerage, Government of Nepal. 4.2 Population Projections The Kathmandu Valley is the most densely populated region in Nepal. Its population has also been increasing rapidly. This population is largely in Kathmandu, which is the centre of administration, industrial, commercial, social and economic activities. During the last three decades, the growth in population has been significantly driven by in-migration. The in-migration is largely due to better employment and business opportunities, better educational and medical facilities, but also insurgency and security concerns of recent years. (Source: KUKL 2011 Third Anniversary Report, 2066/67) The rapid unplanned urbanization of the Kathmandu Valley has brought negative impact to its overall development. Water became scarce as demand exceeded supply. Lack of operational wastewater system facilities converted the holy Bagmati River into a highly polluted river. Congested and crowded roads brought hardship to travelers and road junctions became garbage dumping sites. Despite these negative impacts, the urbanization of the valley has still continued at a similar rate to the past 10 years. According to urban planners, from urban basic service management and disaster relief management aspects, the Kathmandu Valley only has a carrying capacity of 5 million populations. In 1999, the Ministry of Population and Environment (MOPE) estimated that the population in 1998 was 1.5 million, assuming an urban growth rate of 6.3% and 2.32% for the rural sector. This is consistent with the 2001 Census of 1.67 million. Using separate growth rates for the urban and rural population, the population of the valley was estimated to reach 3.5 million by 2016 under a do-nothing scenario according to MOPE (1999), as shown in Table 2. Table 3 shows the projected population in the Kathmandu Valley and KUKL service area upto 2025. Population in Kathmandu Valley will be saturated with maximum capacity of 5 millions in 2025. Thus alternate planning and development of urban settlements are needed after 2025. Figure 4 shows comparison of the KUKL service area permanent population projections adopted with those provided by SAPI (2004) and the Bagmati Action Plan (BAP) (2009). The BAP projection is higher because the area taken is for the whole of the Kathmandu Valley and includes areas outside the KUKL service area. Table 2. Population Projection for Kathmandu Valley under Do-nothing Scenario Year Total Urban1 Rural2 1991 1,105,379 598,528 506,851 1996 1,369,403 800,965 568,438 2001 1,709,380 1,071,872 637,508 2006 2,149,378 1,434,407 714,971 2011 2,721,406 1,919,560 801,846 2016 3,468,082 2,568,805 899,277 Note: 1 Growth rate at 6% per annum, 2, Growth rate at 2.32% per annum. Urban population includes municipal population and population of 34 rapidly urbanizing VDCs, Source: MOPE, 1999 Table 3: Projected Population for Kathmandu Valley and KUKL Service Area Year Year 2001 (census) 2010 2015 2020 2025 Kathmandu Valley 1,579,737 2,712,000 3,486,000 4,481,000 5,761,000 KUKL Service Area 1,285,737 2,135,000 2,713,000 3,242,000 3,963,000 Source: Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Wastewater System Improvement ( PPTA 4893- NEP)   May 2010) 5. WATER INFRASTRUCTURES (KUKL) Figure 5 shows 6 major water supply schemes, namely, Tri Bhim Dhara, Bir Dhara, Sundarijal, Bhaktapur, Chapagaun, and Pharping schemes, which include surface and groundwater sources, WTPs, and major transmission lines. Surface Water Sources: At present, there are 35 surface sources being tapped for water supply mostly situated at hills surrounding the valley as spring in the valley. There is considerable seasonal fluctuation in water discharge. Most water sources have a reduced flow in the dry season by 30 to 40% with some by as much as 70%. Almost all the sources have some potential additional yield in the wet season. The total wet season supply of 106 MLD reduces in the dry season to 75 MLD. Groundwater Sources: Deep tube wells are the main means of extracting groundwater for use in the water supply system. Out of 78 existing deep tube-wells only 57 are currently in operation mainly from 7 well fields, namely, Manohara, Gokarna, Dhobikhola, Bansbari, Mahadevkhola, Bhaktapur, and Pharping well fields. Most of the tube wells electro-mechanical parts are in a poor condition with most flow meters missing or broken. Tube wells used to be operated only in the dry season in order to supplement reducing surface water sources, but, due to demand exceeding supply, they are now also used in the wet season. Total dry season (4 months: February to May) rated production 33 MLD with a reduced wet season (remaining 8 months) production of 13.7 MLD. Additional subsurface flow has been extracting through 15 dug wells. Table A1 (in Appendix) presents inventory of deep tubewells currently in operating condition in KUKL. Water Treatment Plants: At present, there are 20 water treatment plants (WTPs) in the system with a total treatment capacity of about 117 MLD treating surface water and groundwater due to high iron content. Six WTPs are of capacity between 3 to 26.5 MLD. The largest is at Mahankal Chaur with a treatment capacity of 26.5 MLD and the smallest is at Kuleswor with a treatment capacity of 0.11 MLD. Most of the WTPs are in poor condition and none has operational flow meters or properly operating chlorination equipment. Service Reservoirs:   There are a total of 43 service reservoirs in the system with capacities ranging from 4,500m3 down to 50m3. Most of the reservoirs are in reasonable condition but two are leaking. The total storage capacity is 41500 m3. Pumping Stations:There are 31 water supply pumping stations in the system that are used to draw water from sump wells to treatment plants or service reservoirs, and to fill up reservoirs located on higher ground or overhead tanks. Of these only 11 are in satisfactory condition. Few have operational flow meters or pressure gauges. Major operation and maintenance problem in the pumping stations are lack of skilled technician and absence of proper monitoring mechanisms. Transmission Mains and Distribution Lines: At present, the total length of transmission mains is about 301kms,aging between 20 to 115 years, and distribution mains of about 1115 kms of aging between 2 to 115 years, with pipe diameter varying from 50mm to 800mm. The pipe materials used include Galvanized Iron (GI), Cast Iron (CI), Steel (SI), Ductile Iron (DI), High Density Polythene Pipe (HDPE) and Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC). The majority type of pipe used is 50mm diameter GI. Operating Mechanism:   The system has about 1300 major valves of different sizes. Most of the large sizes valves are situated inside WTPs and operating daily. All valves are being operated manually. Water leakage from the valve chamber or valves contributes major portion in the total counted leakage percentage. Other than piped water supplied through the valves, water tankers are also serving water especially in water scared area by injecting into the distribution line usually smaller size (50 mm) and filling in publicly established polytanks. Water tankers are also being used for emergency condition such as pipeline breakage, fire fighting and sudden malfunctioned systems. Water tankers are also used as private trip charging approved rate. There are many problems in the distribution system. These problems include: ad hoc laying of pipes and valves, involvement of users group and their intervention in the operation of valves, multiple service pipeline connections, direct pumpi ng from distribution lines, illegal connections, high percentage of leakage and wastage, and direct distribution from transmission mains. The majority of consumer lines are leaking at the connection to the distribution mains and few customers have properly operating consumer meters. 6. WATER DEMAND AND GROUNDWATER USE FORSUPPLY 6.1Current Water Demand and Supply Water demand is usually derived from the population within service area, population growth, domestic water consumption level assumptions, and a provision for non-domestic water consumption. The permanent population is forecast to rise from present population of 2.1 million in 2010, 2.7 million in 2015 and 3.2 million in 2020 and 3.9 million in 2025. Out of the total population forecast 77%, 87% and 96% of the population will be served, as a result of the MWSP and future investments, in 2015, 2020 and 2025 respectively. Predicting the exact number of temporary population in the valley is a challenging task, as there is no reliable data. Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Wastewater System Improvement-PPTA 2010, undertook a sample survey to count temporary population. The sample surveys were focused on three categories of the temporary population viz street vendors; students, service holders and labours seeking job in the valley; and house servants/keepers. The survey indicated that tempor ary population amounted to approximately 30% of the permanent population. The proportion of temporary population varies between municipal and VDC wards. It has to be taken into account in population projections and service demands. However, demand is also a function of price, household income availability and accessibility of water supply, but accurate estimates of the impact of these factors require extensive analysis of historical data. The present permanent population of the valley water supply service area is estimated at over 2.1 million. Adding 30% the total population to be considered for gross demand forecasting will be 2.73 million. It is reasonable to assume 40 % of total water consumption rate for temporary or floating population. Considering household sanitation system in the service area, it is reasonable to take per capita demand in the range of 85 to 95 lpcd. Kathmandu Valley Water Supply Wastewater System Improvement-PPTA, 2010, has considered 93 lpcd. For the demand taking 135 lpcd which is consumption rate considered in MWSP for total population including temporary population, the total water demand at service level or point of use is found to be 315 MLD, which is similar to KUKL estimated de mand of 320 MLD (KUKL, 2011). Estimated unaccounted for water (UfW) considered for the system is 35-40% (KUKL 2011). Considering UfW as 40 %, net water supply would be decreased by 40%. Figure 6 shows maximum production of 149 MLD on the month of September and minimum of 89 MLD on March. It gives yearly average production of 119 MLD and dry season average production of 94 MLD whereas wet season average is 131 MLD. Considering 20 % real losses as process loss on water flow incorporating transmission loss, treatment plant operation loss, quantity of water supplied and deficiencies is estimated as shown in Fig.7 and Table 4. 20 % loss is assumed to be occurred in distribution system, i.e. from service reservoir to a tap or point of use. Table 4. Current Average Monthly Demand, Supply and Deficiencies Month Demand, MLD Production, MLD Supply, MLD Deficiencies , MLD Jan 315 114 (13.5) 91 224 Feb 315 99(33) 79 236 Mar 315 89(33) 71 244 Apl 315 95(33) 76 239 May 315 96(33) 77 238 Jun 315 114(13.5) 91 224 Jul 315 141(13.5) 113 202 Aug 315 145(13.5) 116 199 Sep 315 149(13.5) 119 196 Oct 315 142(13.5) 114 201 Nov 315 132(13.5) 106 209 Dec 315 116(13.5) 93 222 ( ) Groundwater contribution in MLD Figure 7 shows dry season average supply as 76 MLD and 105 MLD for wet season. Yearly average supply is 96 MLD. Thus the water supply in the Kathmandu Valley via KUKL piped network at present is an average 35 litres per capita per day, whereas supply in KUKL service area is average of 46 lpcd. 6.2Groundwater Depleting Trends The portion of groundwater contribution in total production is an average of 35% during dry season (4 months from Feb to May) and 11% during wet season (remaining 8 months). The pumping rate of the private wells in the valley is smaller compared to KUKLs   tubewell abstraction. The trend of groundwater extraction volume from private wells and gas wells remains almost constant during the last several years. But the production from KUKL wells is increasing greatly. Deeper groundwater is being over-extracted and extraction is unsustainable. It is estimated that there are over 10,000 hand dug well which are used to supplement the KUKL water supply. More reliable water supplies will reduce the need for groundwater pumping, thus allowing more sustainable use of this valuable water resource. JICA (1990) had used historical well hydrographs to assess the seasonal fluctuation of groundwater level and recharge into main aquifer in the study of groundwater management of Kathmandu Valley. Tank Model (Sugawara et al.1974) was used for simulation to develop the relationship between rainfall and groundwater level. The annual fluctuations (maximum groundwater level- minimum groundwater level) of long-term average at two sites were estimated. In the study, they estimated mean annual fluctuation on well WHO 7A (Sundarijal) by taking average over the period 1940-1986 as 1500mm and on well B12 (Maharajgunj) over 1947-1975 as 457 mm. Both wells are located in the northern part of the basin. The groundwater level has an annual cycle. The Kathmandu Valley groundwater basin can be isolated from other groundwater bodies outsides the valley. The recharge through outside the valley is assumed to be negligible. The groundwater levels have been in nearly steady condition in the early stages of the 1980s, because no large well was operated at that time in the basin. JICA (1990) has developed relationship by trial-and-error method in order to make the calculated groundwater level of the main aquifer to coincide with the observed one. Extraction of groundwater by pumping has found to be increased since 1984 so it is worth to assume that groundwater level was in a steady state condition on and before 1983. Groundwater assessment model developed by Shrestha (2001), has found groundwater level   decreasing sharply from 1985 onwards and balanced water available was abruptly changed from 1986 onwards. The model had assumed initial groundwater storage as 1000mm to calculate relative drawdown of the groundwater. The model predicted the maximum soil moisture content as 225 mm which had been found in the range of 200 mm to 250mm estimated by Binnie Partners and Associates (1973) for the Kathmandu Valley. He used mean annual actual evapotranspiration calculated by Shrestha (1990), as 829 mm while the mean annual potential evapotranspiration was 1074 mm. An annual actual evapotranspiration was found almost constant for the valley. Some recharge areas, which are on the northern part of the valley, is converting to urbanization rapidly. On the other hand, extraction of groundwater is also increasing to fulfill the demand of water. These are the main reasons for rapid reduction of groundwat er storage. The drawdown was calculated with reference to the year 1975. The initial condition of groundwater level is taken as of the year 1972. The drawdown depth observed in the valley basin was much closed with observed drawdown for all observed years. The model has found three distinct trends of drawdown such as decreasing trend from 1977 to 1981, increasing trend from 1981 to 1985 and sharp increasing trend after 1986. Main reasons behind sharp increasing trend of drawdown were listed as three to four fold increasing in new house constructions and over extraction of groundwater to cope shooting water demand due to rapid and unplanned urban growth. The total basin equivalent drawdown was found to be increased by 2.75 m in year 1984 and 7.5 m in year 1989 when compared to that in the year 1978. The model predicted drawdown only due to groundwater extraction was found to be increased by 2 m in the year 1984 and 6m in the year 1989   compared with the drawdown during 1978. Shrestha (200 1) concluded that drawdown of 0.75m in the year 1984 and 1.5 m in the year 1989 could be attributed to the hydrological change due to land-use modifications. 7. POST MELAMCHI SCENARIO AND EXPECTED STRESS IN FUTURE It will be reasonable to assume that The Melamchi water will be served its first phase to the alley by 2016. According to the prediction (Referring Figure 4), the permanent population of the service area will be 2.8 millions in 20016. According to urban planners, from urban basic service management and disaster relief management aspects, the Kathmandu Valley only has a carrying capacity of 5 million populations and it would cross the capacity by 2025. MWSP is a comprehensive multi donor water supply mega project that aims to improve the health and well-being of the people in Kathmandu Valley. It will achieve this impact by diverting water from the Melamchi River to the Kathmandu Valley and thus deliver its overall outcome of alleviating the chronic shortage of potable water. MWSP is implemented under two subprojects. Subproject-1 delivers bulk potable water to the head of the Kathmandu Valley (Melamchi Diversion Scheme). Its major civil components are the 26 km tunnel and the new water treatment plant at Sundarijal. MWSP subproject-2 has major civil components of water distribution system and wastewater system improvements in the valley. MWSP has aimed for 24 hours water supply of 135 lpcd and structured water infrastructure rehabilitation and development programs under subproject-2 as listed below, to reduced UfW to 20% from 40%. It can be divided into two portions. 10% loss is assumed to be occurred in transmission and treatment process and another 10 % in distribution system. Rehabilitation and Development of Surface Water and Groundwater Sources Rehabilitation and Development of WTPs Bulk Distribution System Water Supply Service reservoirs repair and New construction Distribution Network Improvement (DNI) Land Acquisition for the programs MWSP has been conceived to divert 510 MLD of water to the Valley in three phases. In the first phase a total of 170 MLD of water would be diverted and followed by subsequent development of Yangri and Larke river system to the tune of 170 MLD each in next two phases. It is expected that first phase Melamchi Water will be added in 2016 and other additions of 170 MLD in 2019 and in 2025. Table.5.Pre and Post Melamchi Scenario on Demand, Production, Supply, Groundwater Contribution and Supply Hour per day for 2011 and 2016 Table 5 presents calculated water demand after first phase of MWSP completion   i.e. on 2016, as 423 MLD serving permanent population of 2.8 million and temporary population of 0.84 million (30% of permanent population ) with 135 lpcd 24 hour supply. Average Water Production including additional 170 MLD with average groundwater contribution of 7% is 288.96 MLD. Supply is calculated considering 10% transmission and treatment process loss and average supply as 260.06 MLD. Liter per capita per day (lpcd) is evaluated considering supply quantity for total effective population (2.8 +0.3 x 2.8 = 3.64 millions), but only 40% of consumption rate is considered for temporary population. It shows an average lpcd of 82.9 lpcd serving the total population with 24 hour supply. If supply is managed with project demand of 135 lpcd, the average supply duration per day will be of 14.74 hours. Table.6.Pre and Post Melamchi Scenario on Demand, Production, Supply, Groundwater Contribution and Supply Hour per day for 2019 and 2025 Figure 8 shows the MWSP will increase average lpcd from 40 lpcd in 2011 to 126 lpcd in 2025.   If supply system is managed with project demand of 135 lpcd, the average supply duration per day is also increased from 7 hr a day in 2011 to 23 hour a day in 2025. Table 6 Figure 9 show decreased average groundwater contribution from 19 percent in 2011 to 3 percent in 2025. 8. CONCLUSIONS Considering water supply scenario of 2011, average water supplied at the point of use will be 57 MLD taking 40% UfW (KUKL, 2011) and consumption rate of the supply is 24.27 lpcd. Supply duration per day is calculated as 4 hour if considered 135 lpcd. But the supply hour is much less than calculated as present condition of KUKL water supply. Major possible reasons which make difference with actual conditions might be listed as: Inaccurate forecasting of served population Absence of effective MIS of Water Supply System Inaccurate estimating UfWs ( transmission, treatment and distribution) It is found that MWSP alone is not sufficient providing water supply to cover forecasted served populations. Alternative sources should be planned and added. Another option will be, if outside the valley urban settlement development planning is formulated and implemented, the population growth rate will be controlled or it may be decreased mainly due to migration of new population to outside the valley. Effect of land-use modification is more predominant in groundwater than on the surface water (Shrestha, 2001). This is due to fact that the extraction of groundwater to fulfill the demand of growth urbanization is increased and portion of water infiltrating for groundwater is reduced due to increase in imperviousness. Hence rechargeable area of the valley importantly northern groundwater zone should have land use planning providing more open area with less paved. To control rapid drawdown of groundwater level, excessive extraction of deep groundwater should be controlled providing alternate options such as introducing rainwater harvesting techniques from micro (private) to macro (institutional) level, and water demand management. Riverhead forests surrounding the existing surface sources should be protected so that persistent surface flows could be observed throughout the year.